In the United States, affirmative action consists of government-mandated, government-approved, and voluntary private programs granting special consideration to groups considered or classified as historically excluded, specifically racial minorities and women.

In the People's Republic of China, the government had instated affirmative action policies for ethnic minorities called preferential policy or bonus point for minority ethnic groups (in College Entrance Examination) when it began in 1949 and still had impact until today.

Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study is a 2004 nonfiction work by economist Thomas Sowell.