Sorry, no online dictionaries contain the exact phrase stripped of.
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Reverse dictionary results:
1. deprived
 2. removed
3. denuded
4. divested
5. dispossessed
6. depreciation
7. fuel poverty
8. dearth
9. decompensate
10. disable
 11. disablement
12. extenuate
13. impairing
14. impairment
15. incapacitate
16. invasive
17. offish
18. privation
19. depauperate
20. depletory
 21. depreciating
22. deprival
23. deprivation
24. destitution
25. detraction
26. disability
27. disabled
28. disabled sport
29. dispurvey
30. empoverish
 31. famine
32. limitation
33. pauperization
34. pauperize
35. reduced
36. unperfect
37. abandonment
38. abstract
39. blank
40. decreaser

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You can look up the words in the phrase individually using these links:   stripped ?   of ?
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Not helpful? You might try using the wildcards * and ? to find the word you're looking for. For example, use
stri*to search for words beginning with stri, or
*d ofto search for words ending with d of
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